Ethics: Utilitarianism Essay

Ask a passerby to describe his personal morality, and you’ll likely get a complicated explanation filled with ifs, ands, and buts. Ask a utilitarian, and he can give a six-word response: greatest good for the greatest number. Of course, utilitarianism is not that simple. Like any philosophical system, it is the subject of endless debate. Still, for the average reader who is unfamiliar with the jargon that characterizes most philosophy, utilitarianism can be a useful tool in deciding before an action whether or not to carry it out or, after an action, whether or not a moral choice was made. Most credit the economist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) as utilitarianism’s principal author. Bentham described his thinking as the â€Å"greatest happiness principle,† and his idea was elaborated upon in the nineteenth century by John Stuart Mill in his classic work, Utilitarianism (1863). In that book, Mill develops three critical components of utilitarianism: an emphasis on results, individual happiness, and total happiness (by which he means the happiness of everyone affected by an action). Results: Mill expanded Bentham’s definition of utilitarianism to argue that â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. †[1] This means that utilitarians care only about the results of an action. Other factors that we typically consider when making moral judgments about an action, including a person’s motive or his expectations about the results, do not matter in utilitarianism. A utilitarian would say that a man who shoots another by accident is guilty of murder, whether or not the shooting was an accident. Conversely, the man with â€Å"murder in his heart† who tries to shoot another but misses cannot be held morally accountable for the act. In utilitarianism, only the results matter. Individual happiness: The second component of utilitarianism is Mill’s idea of happiness, by which he means pleasure. As individuals making moral choices, we should seek to act in ways that maximize happiness and minimize pain (which Mill defines as â€Å"the reverse of happiness†). In promoting the maximum happiness, Mill is not advocating a life of food, sex and sleep. He specifically states that not all pleasures are created equal: â€Å"Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals,† he writes, â€Å"for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast’s pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus. †[2] For Mill, a hierarchy of pleasures exists, with human pleasures such as love rising to the top of the list. Falling in love or being moved by a song or poem are greater goods to a utilitarian than eating a delicious sandwich, not because love and music and poetry are different in kind than the physical pleasure of eating, but because these are especially profound pleasures. Total happiness: The third defining aspect of utilitarianism is its emphasis on the total happiness, by which Mill means the happiness of all people affected by an action. To decide if an action is moral, a utilitarian will conduct an accounting of the pleasure and pain associated with that act. If the sum total of pleasure outweighs the sum total of pain, the action is considered moral; if not, immoral. Take as an example the case of price-fixing, the government’s setting of minimum prices for goods such as milk to protect farmers from ruin. Is price-fixing moral? Utilitarians would think through this question as follows: When the government (as opposed to the free market) sets the bottom-line price for milk, every consumer suffers moderate pain since the government artificially raises the cost of milk above what the marketplace, operating according to the laws of supply and demand, would otherwise charge. Large consumers who depend on milk (for example, ice cream manufacturers) may suffer severely if the price is kept artificially high. And that increased cost would no doubt be passed on to millions of consumers in the form of increased costs for ice cream. But if the dairy farmers don’t get price protection, they may go bankrupt—in which case a far greater cost would be paid: no one would be able to buy milk or milk products. Price fixing, then, helps farmers stay in business at the expense of ice cream manufacturers and consumers. Is that expense justified? Utilitarians would answer on a case-by-case basis after a careful balancing of benefits to a few with the increased (though small) cost to the many. [3] Individuals as well as governments can be guided by utilitarian thinking. Take the question of organ donation. Is it moral for the family member of a recently (and perhaps tragically) deceased person to grant doctors permission to harvest their loved one’s organs? Utilitarianism’s â€Å"greatest happiness† principle demands any personal sacrifice in which the total amount of pleasure produced outweighs the costs in pain, even if the person making the choice receives none of the benefits. Other philosophers place a priority on individual liberty and object to using one person (even a dead person or dead person’s body parts) for another’s benefit. Utilitarians, by contrast, conclude that such actions are morally necessary. The emotional pain of a family that has lost a loved one is very real. But to utilitarians, the extra pain caused by organ donation is a measure of pain on top of the pain of having already lost a family member. That extra measure of pain must be less than the happiness that results when a life is saved through a transplanted organ. Thus, if the family uses the principle of greatest happiness to guide its decision, then they will agree to the harvesting of organs. A more controversial example of using utilitarianism to make moral decisions involves the ethics of torture. It is sometimes argued that utilitarianism would allow the torture of a prisoner if the torture induced a confession that could save lives, a practice that is strictly outlawed in international law. In a society where this interpretation of utilitarianism was widely accepted, police would be able to inflict any amount of pain on an individual in order to save even one life. This final example highlights one aspect of utilitarianism that is often criticized. Although the greatest happiness principle is easy to understand, its application can lead to some unsettling results. One can imagine a society’s interest in achieving the â€Å"greatest happiness† justifying all kinds of abuses in the name of morality. Utilitarians, in fact, cannot easily explain why torture is morally wrong. Still, in guiding people through more ordinary decisions, utilitarianism has remained popular among both philosophers and non-philosophers. All of us need help sometimes in deciding on the right course of action. Utilitarianism has provided that help for philosophers and common folk alike for two hundred years. ———————– [1] John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001) 7. [2] Mill, 9. [3] Robert W. McGee, â€Å"Some Thoughts on Anti-dumping Laws: Utilitarianism, Human Rights and the Case for Appeal,† European Business Review 96 (1996): 30.

Reader Response Theory Essay

Literary criticism is not an abstract, intellectual exercise; it is a natural human response to literature. Literary criticism is nothing more than discourse—spoken or written—about literature. Reader-response criticism attempts to describe what happens in the reader’s mind while interpreting a work of fiction. This type of literary criticism recognizes that like writing, reading is a creative process. Reader-response critics believe that no text provides self-contained meaning; literary texts do not have meaning independently from readers’ interpretations. According to this school, a text is not complete until it is read and interpreted. The easiest way to explain reader-response criticism is to relate it to the common experience of re-reading a favorite book after many years. A book one read as a child might seem shockingly different when re-read as an adolescent or as an adult. The character once remembered favorably might seem less admirable while another character becomes more sympathetic. The book has not changed. However, our life experiences between the first reading and any subsequent re-reading can affect the way we respond to a story. Reader-response criticism explores how different individuals see the same text differently. It emphasizes how religious, cultural, and social values affect the way we read and respond to a work of fiction. Of course, no two individuals will necessarily read a text in exactly the same way nor will they agree on its meaning. Rather than declare one interpretation correct and the other mistaken, reader-response criticism recognizes that different insights are inevitable. Instead of trying to ignore or reconcile the contradictions, it explores them. Reader-response criticism also overlaps with gender criticism in exploring how men and women read the same text with different assumptions. While reader-response criticism rejects the notion that there can be a single correct reading for a literary text, it doesn’t consider all readings permissible. Each text creates limits to its possible interpretations. We cannot suddenly change the setting, the way a story’s plot unfolds, or redefine its characters. Keeping a reader’s journal is a great way to keep track of the fiction you read and your emotional responses to the stories. You can use the journal to explore ideas for essays, note important quotations, and list words to look up in the dictionary. Use your reader’s journal while studying Sun, Stone, and Shadows to provide a convenient way of documenting your own response to the stories you read in the anthology. Excerpted from The Longman Anthology of Short Fiction by Dana Gioia and R. S. Gwynn, eds.

The Sociological And Psychological Aspects Of Communication

Linguistics Linguistic can be defined as something of or belonging to language. Whereas, Linguistics is the science of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and historical linguistics. Linguistic is one of the four branches of Anthropology which is called Linguistic anthropology. Anthropology is the that deals with the origins, physical and cultural development, biological characteristics, social customs and beliefs of humankind. According to the Funk and Wagnalls encyclopedia, â€Å"Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It focuses on the sounds, words and grammar of specific languages; the relationships between languages; or the universal characteristics of all languages†. It may also analyze the sociological and psychological aspects of communication. Languages may be described and analyzed from several points of view. Talking about language here, â€Å"Language is the system of arbitrary symbols human beings use to encode a nd communicate about their experience of the world and of one another.† (Lavenda and Schultz 2008: 246). Language is part of what makes us human. Language is the most striking cultural feature of human beings. Language is intrinsic to the expression of culture. As a means of communicating values, beliefs and customs, it has an important social function and fosters feelings of group identity and solidarity. It is the means by which culture and its traditions and shared values may be conveyed andShow MoreRelatedAn Sociological And Psychological Aspects Of The Communication Process1199 Words   |  5 PagesDescribe communication, evaluate the stages of the communication process and assess the key aspects of each process. 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Christian Leadership Essay - 1920 Words

Nations crumble, churches and business fail, families become dysfunctional, children lose their way, and men stray from God for one disturbing reason; lack of leadership. These failures are often because of the lack of instruction, proper leadership, and confusion over what Christian leadership is and how that leadership is applicable to every facet of business and personal life. The Webster Dictionary defines leadership as an office or position, the capacity to lead, the act or an instance of leading (Merriam-Webster, 2011). Leader is defined as; a person who directs a military force or unit, a person who has commanding authority or influence (Merriam-Webster, 2011). The Army defines leadership as the process of influencing people by†¦show more content†¦In 1 Samuel 8:10-18, God said, This is what the king who will reign over you will do: He will take your sons and make serve with his chariots and horses, and they will run in front of his chariots†¦. and others to plow his ground and reap his harvest†¦ He will take the best of your fields and vineyards and olive groves and give them to his attendants†¦. He will take a tenth of your grain and of your vintage and give it to his officials and attendants. Your menservants and maidservants and the best of your cattle and donkeys he will take for his own use. He will take a tenth of your flocks, and you yourselves will become his slaves. When that day comes, you will cry out for relief from the king you have chosen, and the LORD will not answer you in that day (Zondervan, 2002 pg 387) Nations fail because God’s people have turned to men for answers and not to God and as a result we seek our will and not God’s. We turn from him because we think we know better. Unfortunately, we make ourselves out to be fools by doing so. Those nations have failed because they fall into a cycle that has been repeated over and over, yet man refused to take heed. 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Theme Of Archetypes In Sir Gawain And The Green Knight

The archetypes that are prevalent in many different stories all have have common origin in Joseph Campbells Hero With a Thousand Faces. More specifically, in the medieval story, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, there are distinct archetypes that are especially necessary to the theme of the story.An understanding of three key archetypes—the temptress the magic weapon, and the task—reveal the essence of Gawain’s role within the archetypal quest motif. To begin, the temptress archetype is an archetype that is characterized *where women,†become the symbols no longer of victory but of defeat† (Campbell 111).The temptress also serves as a distraction to the hero’s task and may even intentionally misguide the hero. As seen in Sir Gawain and the†¦show more content†¦Gawain first obtains the girdle from the host’s wife as something to remember. Gawain clearly feels uncomfortable about this, but does not bring it up to the host when he is supposed to exchange something in return for whatever the host caught during that day’s hunt. However, after the host’s wife telling him that the girdle will protect him from harm, the girdle now takes on the true role of a magic weapon. When Gawain meets with the green knight, he is unharmed, (with the exception of the cut on his neck). He believes that he was unharmed because of the green girdles magical powers. However, this is not the case. The green k night had no real intentions to hurt him, but Gawain obviously couldn’t have known this, so he credits his good luck to the green girdle. Only later does he recognize that the girdle is actually a symbol of his failures. He swears to wear it forever as a reminder of his lack of courage and honesty. When he returns home, the other knights start wearing green girdles as a symbol of their respect and admiration that they have for Gawain. In this way, the reader can clearly see the various different things the girdle symbolism. The girdle is probably one of the most important parts to the entire story since it is so multidimensional and provides insight into numerous situations Lastly, the actual task that Gawain had to complete was the entire meat of the story. When theShow MoreRelatedTheme Of Archetypes In Sir Gawain And The Green Knight864 Words   |  4 Pagesfollow Archetypes. The concept of Archetypes presents itself in Joseph Campbells’, Hero with a Thousand Faces. Campbell’s book goes the extra mile describing/explaining how Archetypes come into action throughout the journey of the hero detailing how â€Å"The archetypes to be discovered and assimilated are precisely those that have inspired, throughout the annals of human culture, the basic images of ritual, mythology, and vision†(Campbell 41). One story, in particular a poem, arises in Sir Gawain and theRead MoreExamples Of Archetypes In Sir Gawain And The Green Knight1223 Words   |  5 Pagesin today’s culture, we become more and more aware of the archetypes that surround us. Archetypes are the works of a typical character, situation, setting, or symbol that can be found in fantasy and reality. An example would be the renowned medieval story Sir Gawain and the Green Knight by Pearl Poet. The author permeates the story with situational, symbolic, and character archetypes that illustrate the profound life of Sir Gawain. Sir Gawain was apprehensive of his journey at first, but as time passesRead MoreArchetypal Conflicts In Sir Gawain And The Green Knight785 Words   |  4 Pagesmonomyth archetypes, it becomes apparent to one what common patterns are found when following along with the hero’s journey. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, readers follow Gawain on his quest to redeem the honor of his community. A number of archetypal situations occur to Sir Gawain and serve to promote Gawain’s conflicts, character, and theme development. Throughout Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, many conflicts rise to the surface as the medieval story, portraying a prideful knight and hisRead MoreSummary Of The Archetypal Roles In Sir Gawain And The Green Knight843 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout history, archetypes have become increasingly common. In the medieval, chivalrous, romance narrative poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, archetypes are heavily displayed, particularly in the character of the Green Knight- who holds several archetypal roles himself. The Green Knight performs the most crucial archetypal roles in the reading and he plays a pivotal part in perfecting of the hero’s--Gawain’s--moral development and revealing some significant changes that occur in the hero’sRead MoreThe Truth Behind the Knight: the Presence of Archetypes in Sir Gawain the Green Knight2908 Words   |  12 PagesThe Truth Behind the Knight: The Presence of Archetypes in Sir Gawain the Green Knight In the medieval story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, we are introduced to a young man, who, like many of young men, is trying to discover himself and travel through his rite of passage. He is trying to figure out who he is in life, and while in his journey, passes through many phases that mold him into one of the great Knights of the Round Table that old King Arthur wanted to serve with him. These phasesRead MoreComparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay1555 Words   |  7 PagesBeowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, both reflect attributes of loyalty, specifically the testing of one’s loyalty and the consequences of disloyalty, which reflect the behavior and values shared by the Anglo-Saxons and the people of the Late Medieval era. When analyzing loyalty in both of these works one will see that one’s own self-worth turns loyalty into selfishness to save oneself rather than risking one’s life for the sake of the community. Joseph Cam pbell outlined archetypes in his HeroRead MoreAn Assortment Of Heroism : Sir Gawain And The Green Knight1171 Words   |  5 PagesAn Assortment of Heroism Theme is essential to any great work of literature, and while the following are certainly very different tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Beowulf and The Dream of the Rood each have particularly strong themes of heroism, though, they each have their own distinct idea of what heroism is, their own flavor one might say. It is partly because of their strong themes and ideas that they are still well-known and read today. A story without a theme or real purpose has littleRead MoreBeowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay2373 Words   |  10 Pageshowever, there are certain archetypes that can be recognized in every work. Often a hero emerges from a literary piece and embarks on the quest of saving his or her jeopardized community. In addition, the courageous hero often becomes the symbolic figure by representing the esteemed cultural ideals of the community. Such is the case in the works Beowulf from the Anglo-Saxon period and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight from the Late Middle Ages. Both heroes Beowulf and Sir Gawain represent certain customsRead MoreComparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay1762 Words   |  8 Pages ultimately tying in with the theme of the work. Beowulf and Sir Gawain both exhibit what the Anglo-Saxons and the Middle-English viewed as both proper and improper conduct. What the reader encounters through these two characters, however, involves a paradigm shift between the two cultures, with values, fate and pride leading to demise , reflected in Beowulf contrasting with those, the knight’s code of honor and chivalry, expressed in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. These dissimilar worldviews becomeRead More Paganism and Christianity’s Roles in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight2350 Words   |  10 PagesPaganism and Christianity’s Roles in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Gawain’s belief by the end of â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight† is that he has failed—in honesty, fidelity, and faith. As a representative of an ideal Christian whose priority is to remain godly (and knightly), he sees the outcome of his quest quite differently than the Green Knight. The Green Knight also prizes honesty, though not always at the cost of life, a view not necessarily shared by Gawain. Strangely enough, King Arthur’s

Types of Oil and Gas Agreement free essay sample

Concessions are the oldest and most widely used type of agreement. Examples of countries that adopt this type of agreement include: United States, United Kingdom, Kuwait, Australia. Under the Joint Venture agreement, the International Oil Companies and the National Oil Companies form a Joint Venture. Each Joint Venture Partner pays/receives its share in proportion to its Participating Interest. The major problem with this type of agreement is its low success rate. It is therefore, less commonly used. Examples of countries that adopt this type of agreement include: Cameroon, Pakistan, Colombia, Netherlandsring Contract, the Company is initially responsible for all exploration and development costs. When production begins, the oil is shared between the Company and the Government (or the national oil company). The oil stream is first of all divided into two parts: Cost oil and Profit oil. Examples of countries that adopt this type of agreement include: Egypt, India, Sri Lanka, Angola. We will write a custom essay sample on Types of Oil and Gas Agreement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page HYBRIDS Hybrids is a combination of Concession / Joint Venture / Production Sharing Contract. Efforts to develop a world model Hybrid agreement have been unsuccessful because structures are becoming more diverse. Examples of countries that adopt this type of agreement include: Tanzania, Libya, China, Nigeria.

Versions of Libertarianism

Introduction The doctrine of libertarianism entails that people have inherent or natural rights. These rights should not be taken away (Shaw and Vincent 15). It is an immoral act for anyone or for the governments to deny people their rights.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Versions of Libertarianism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Examples of these natural rights include the right to own property, the right to personal autonomy and the right to use unused resources. According to this school of thought, the society can cooperate and coexist well when people respect their natural rights. The paper delineates the two versions of libertarianism namely total libertarianism and moderate libertarianism. Total libertarianism According to this version of libertarianism, people are protected by the government. The government has the obligation of ensuring that all the rights of people are protected. The government needs t o formulate rules that ensure individuals are well protected. Therefore, the citizens should be protected from activities like breach of contracts, fraud, theft and any subjection of force. Moderate libertarianism This version of libertarianism ensures that the government protects free and fair competition in the markets. People should be allowed to carry on with their businesses and other activities without restriction provided they are not violating the rights of others. For instance, there should be no monopolies, oligopolies and integrations in the market. The market should be free to allow people make progress in their duties without restrictions.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strengths of total libertarianism One of the strengths of total libertarianism is that it ensures that people are protected from mistreatment. People have equal rights and nobody should violate them. Fur ther, it ensures that people coexist well in a society. It fosters transparency and honesty in the society as people respect each other’s rights. For instance, no person should steal someone’s property as this would amount to violation of natural rights. Weaknesses One weakness is that it is difficult for human beings to govern themselves. Therefore, a government should be formed to ensure that these rights are practiced. Further, the government, which is bestowed the responsibility of ensuring the protection, may not have the right mechanism or may be biased in its decisions, hence can have negative impact on the process. Strength of the moderate libertarianism This ensures that people cooperate and coexist with one another without restrictions or limitations. It enhances unity in the society. Moreover, it promotes the spirit of togetherness and discipline in a society as people make decisions at free will. Weaknesses libertarianism This form of government poses a ris k of exploitation, especially in situations when it does not participate in decision-making. For instance, it leads to monopolies that may exploit innocent people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Versions of Libertarianism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People may take the law in their hands and cause harm to others due to the absence of a body like the government to monitor their moves. Of these two free market philosophies, total libertarianism makes more sense. It ensures that the rights of an individual are fully protected. No person is supposed to be deprived of such rights. Therefore, this allows people in a society to respect and coexist with one another well. This philosophy best addresses the current unequal distribution of wealth. The society is required to use what they have and assist one another. It is the right of every individual to own property and use available resources to uplift his/her life . Therefore, total libertarianism gives an equal opportunity for every member of the society to use resources to amass wealth. There is no restriction, hence it can help to alleviate unequal wealth distribution facing the world today. Works Cited Shaw, William, and Vincent Barry. Moral Issues in Business. 12th ed. Paperback, 2012. Print. This essay on Versions of Libertarianism was written and submitted by user Dirty F0x to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.